Sutherlands Differential Association Theory Explained

Differential association theory proposes that people learn values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior through their interactions with others. It is a learning theory of deviance that was initially proposed by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 and revised in 1947. The theory has continued to be enormously important to the field of criminology ever since. Key Takeaways: Sutherland's Differential Association Theory Sociologist Edwin Sutherland first proposed differential association theory in 1939 as a learning theory of deviance.Differential association theory proposes that the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior are learned through one’s interactions with others.Differential association theory remains important to the field of criminology, although critics have objected to its failure to take personality traits into account. Origins Before Sutherland introduced his theory of differential association, the explanations for criminal behavior were varied and inconsistent. Seeing this as a weakness, law professor Jerome Michael and philosopher Mortimer J. Adler published a critique of the field that argued that criminology hadn’t produced any scientifically-backed theories for criminal activity. Sutherland saw this as a call to arms and used rigorous scientific methods to develop differential association theory. Sutherland’s thinking was influenced by the Chicago School of sociologists. In particular, he took cues from three sources: the work of Shaw and McKay, which investigated the way delinquency in Chicago was distributed geographically; the work of Sellin, Wirth, and Sutherland himself, which found that crime in modern societies was the result of conflicts between different cultures; and Sutherlands own work on professional thieves, which found that in order to become a professional thief, one must become a member of a group of professional thieves and learn through them. Sutherland initially outlined his theory in 1939 in the third edition of his book Principles of Criminology. He then revised the theory for the fourth edition of the book in 1947. Since then, differential association theory has remained popular in the field of criminology and has sparked a great deal of research. One of the reasons for the theory’s continued pertinence is its broad ability to explain all kinds of criminal activity, from juvenile delinquency to white collar crime. Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory Sutherland’s theory doesn’t account for why an individual becomes a criminal but how it happens. He summarized the principles of differential association theory with nine propositions: All criminal behavior is learned.Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others via a process of communication.Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal groups and relationships.The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning about techniques to carry out the behavior as well as the motives and rationalizations that would justify criminal activity and the attitudes necessary to orient an individual towards such activity.The direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is learned through the interpretation of legal codes in one’s geographical area as favorable or unfavorable.When the number of favorable interpretations that support violating the law outweigh the unfavorable interpretations that don’t, an individual will choose to become a criminal.All differential associations aren’t equal. They can vary in frequency, intensity, priority, and duration.The process of learning criminal behaviors thr ough interactions with others relies on the same mechanisms that are used in learning about any other behavior.Criminal behavior could be an expression of generalized needs and values, but they don’t explain the behavior because non-criminal behavior expresses the same needs and values. Differential association takes a social psychological approach to explain how an individual becomes a criminal. The theory posits that an individual will engage in criminal behavior when the definitions that favor violating the law exceed those that don’t. Definitions in favor of violating the law could be specific. For example, â€Å"This store is insured. If I steal these items, it’s a victimless crime.† Definitions can also be more general, as in â€Å"This is public land, so I have the right to do whatever I want on it.† These definitions motivate and justify criminal activity. Meanwhile, definitions unfavorable to violating the law push back against these notions. Such definitions can include, â€Å"Stealing is immoral† or â€Å"Violating the law is always wrong.† The individual is also likely to put different weight on the definitions they are presented in their environment. These differences depend on the frequency with which a given definition is encountered, how early in life a definition was first presented, and how much one values the relationship with the individual presenting the definition. While the individual is most likely to be influenced by definitions provided by friends and family members, learning can also occur at school or through the media. For example, the media often romanticize criminals. If an individual favors stories of mafia kingpins, such as the TV show The Sopranos and The Godfather films, the exposure to this media may impact the individual’s learning because it includes some messages that favor breaking the law. If an individual focuses on those messages, they could contribute to an individual’s choice to engage in criminal behavior. In addition, even if an individual has the inclination to commit a crime, they must have the skills necessary to do so. These skills could be complex and more challenging to learn, like those involved in computer hacking, or more easily accessible, like stealing goods from stores. Critiques Differential association theory was a game-changer in the field of criminology. However, the theory has been criticized for failing to take individual differences into account. Personality traits may interact with one’s environment to create outcomes that differential association theory cannot explain. For example, people can change their environment to ensure it better suits their perspectives. They may also be surrounded by influences that don’t espouse the value of criminal activity and choose to rebel by becoming a criminal anyway. People are independent, individually motivated beings. As a result, they may not learn to become criminals in the ways differential association predicts. Sources Cressey, Donald R. â€Å"The Theory of Differential Association: An Introduction.† Social Problems, vol. 8, no. 1, 1960, pp. 2-6. https://doi.org/10.2307/798624â€Å"Differential Association Theory.† LibreTexts: Social Science, 23 May, 2019. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/7%3A_Deviance%2C_Social_Control%2C_and_Crime/7.6%3A_The_Symbolic-Interactionalist_Perspective_on_Deviance/7.6A%3A_Differential_Association_Theoryâ€Å"Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory Explained.† Health Research Funding. https://healthresearchfunding.org/edwin-sutherlands-differential-association-theory-explained/Matsueda, Ross L. â€Å"Sutherland, Edwin H.: Differential Association Theory and Differential Social Organization.† Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory, edited by Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox. Sage Publications, 2010, pp. 899-907. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412959193.n250Matsueda, Ross L. â€Å"The Current State of Differential Association Theory.† Crime Delinquency, vol. 34, no, 3, 1988, pp. 277-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128788034003005Ward, Jeffrey T. and Chelsea N. Brown. â€Å"Social Learning Theory and Crime.† International Encyclopedia of the Social Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed., edited by James D. Wright. Elsevier, 2015, pp. 409-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.45066-X

The Tragedy Of Sophocles Antigone Essay - 1808 Words

Antigone is the main character of the homonymous tragedy of Sophocles. The play follows the formal conventions of Greek tragedy and it is composed of seven scenes (opening scene, prologos), five scenes and a final scene (exodus), which are divided noticeably by six choral songs (opening lyric, parodos) and five choral songs (stasima) which have some relevance to the dramatic situation. As Aristotle distinguishes in his work of literary criticism, Poetics, part of the excitement of a tragic performance comes from the skillful structuring of the plot (muthos). In Antigone, the way in which the play is built through a series of climaxes and confrontations that culminate in the revelation of Creon’s mistake and the disclosure of the multiple deaths is characteristic. The tragedies often are named after female figures, which may seem a paradox with the absolute lack of power of women in a patriarchal society. One of the theories that have been advanced is that even at that time there was the idea that a female figure can be reason of change and transformation. Hegel, regarding to this, defined woman as the weak ring of the chain, which from an ideological point of view can be considered either positive or negative: the woman is fragile, weak, unreliable. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Hegel also saw foreshadowed the conflict between Antigone and Creon, the conflict between the needs of the family and those of the state. In fact, in the gracious gesture of Antigone,Show MoreRelatedThe Tragedy Of Antigone By Sophocles1182 Words   |  5 PagesThe play Antigone, composed by Sophocles, informs us that fate cannot be controlled by anyone. Fate is an essential part of many tragedies. 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“Everyone has the right to work, to free cho Essay Example For Students

â€Å"Everyone has the right to work, to free cho Essay ice ofemployment, to just and favourable conditions of work. . .Everyonehas the right to a standard of living adequate for the health andwell-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing,housing and medical care and necessary social service.† These areexcerpts from the Declaration of Human Rights. Written over 50 yearsago, the Declaration was created to give, â€Å"inherent dignityand. . .equal and inalienable rights of all members of the humanfamily.† The Declaration gave hope to many people across the globewho were living in tyranny and oppression, hoping for equality andfair treatment. Unfortunately for some, this document turned out tobe merely one of false hope and lies. The people I speak of are ourfellow human beings working under slave-like conditions insweatshops. To them, the aforementioned promises are just a myth,something they can only dream about. As the aforementioned articlesstate, all human beings are guaranteed fair pay and working. Are notthose sweat shop workers human beings? Of course they are humanbeings! Sadly, they’re not treated like it. They’re forced to workand incredible number of hours, under hazardous conditions and atridiculously low wages. Don’t they deserve the rights the Declarationmentions? Of course they do! This is the exact reason that suchtreatment can’t continue. Something must be done. Although proponents of sweatshops say that consumer demandfor the lowest prices controls worker wages and conditions, they arejust fooling themselves. If they want to talk about it economically,cheap labor actually debilitates the economy by driving wages downand forcing the lack of money which can only lead to a recession. Inaddition, workers who are paid less, are in turn less motivated towork. In addition, as economist Hazel Henderson explains:Many international manufacturers are subsidized by sweatshop wages. Once they exploit cheap workers in one area, they find even cheaperworkers someplace else, so fragile societies get disrupted. Humanrights groups need to inspect these factories, so we wont have worldtrade built on child labor, sweatshop wages and burning down rainforests. This short-term exploitation is just not sustainable. (Henderson 1)So, taking this into account, one can see the flaws in theoppositions argument that demand for low prices controls workerwages. Not only is there a problem in the oppositions excuses, butthere are also problems with worker wages that need to be faced anddealt with. As everyone knows, we live in a capitalistic society in whicheveryone tries to get ahead and make the most profit they can. Manufacturers are no different, they too are capitalists trying tomaximize profit as best they can. But there still must a point wherea line must be drawn. At this point, the manufacturer must realizethat workers are human beings and that their well being is worth morethan any profit. In most cases, clothing manufacturers hirecontractors to make their clothes. These contractors can range fromexpensive to cheap. Most often, the expensive ones are thosecontractors who do the job themselves, legally. The other ones arethe contractors who charge low prices because they, in turn, contractout low wage sweatshops. Not only does this profit the manufacturer,but it also makes the contractor more appealing to othermanufacturers. So in most cases, sweatshops come about because ofcapitalistic greed. Because of this, sweatshop workers live inpoverty and can barely, if at all, make enough to provide forthemselves and their family. Although the situation is bad in theUnited States, it’s much worse in other parts around the world. In areport entitled â€Å"How Do You Survive On 31 cents-an-Hour Wages?†published by the National Labor Council, a study was conducted onwages and living expenses for workers in sweatshops in Nicaragua. They found a pay stub, â€Å"from the NICSEDA factory (which the workerstold us produces Polo Ralph Lauren) shows the hourly wages to be 2.08Cordobas or 0.21 cents.† Furthermore, the average pay for a workerwho put in a 56 hour week was $17.31. In addition, the report statedthat the base wage for these workers was 10 cents an hour, whichtranslated into $4.80 a week, $20.90 a month and $249.60 per year!This is outrageous. There is no way a person can live off thosewages. The report left off by informing that these Nicaraguanworkers were tired of their ridiculously low wages so in protest theywere going to try to start a union. Their demands were a raise to 88cents an hour. This translates to $2,196, 48 per year. As one cansee, these demands were not very high. Perhaps the only way they’llget it is by, as they started doing, forming a union. Unionizationis a very important factor in workers winning some rights. Twelfth Night - Analysis Of Fools Essay(â€Å"Industry Leader† 3).† You too can join the campaign and take astep toward ending sweatshops. Another thing individuals can do isto write to companies in protest. You can send a letter or email theaforementioned companies and voice your opinion about their means oflabor. In addition, college students are also pulling together toend sweatshops. The United Students Against Sweatshops is aninternational student movement that involves individual students fromcampuses all over America and Canada fighting for sweatshop freelabor conditions and workers rights. The USAS believe thatuniversity standards should be in line with its students. Thestudents demand that clothing having the school’s logo should be madein places where decent working conditions exist. In an articledescribing their cause, entitled â€Å"About us,† the USAS also goes on tosay, â€Å"Ultimately, we are using our power as students to affect thelarge r industry that thrives on sweatshops (1).† Furthermore, otherorganizations are also lending a hand to help the cause to endsweatshop conditions. One organization, UNITE, is helping workersform unions to get the fair labor conditions they deserve. Makingtheir own union, UNITE already has over 500 members who are fightingfor better wages, decent conditions and other rights. Other actionthat is being taken to combat the injustice, is at a governmentlevel. Last year Governor Gray Davis signed into law Assembly Bill633. The purpose of this bill was to crack down on sweatshop abusesin California. This bill imposed a â€Å"wage guarantee† which providedworkers minimum wage and overtime, it also, â€Å"Establishes successoremployer liability so that garment factories cannot shut down andreopen under a different name to avoid paying the wages of its formeremployees (â€Å"USA† 2).† Lastly, it allows garment workers employed bynon registered contractors to take the m to court over lost wages,damages and penalties. When one considers the injustice the sweatshop worker dealswith at the hands of corporate America, one cannot wonder how suchactions are allowed. Where is the Declaration of Human Rights? Thisdocument declares rights to all humans. But somehow sweatshopworkers are overlooked? They are human beings too. Something mustbe done to end this parade of abuse. Some action must be taken tomend the wounds of the worker. Works Cited1. â€Å"About Us.† United Students Against Sweatshops. 8, May 2000. . 2. Green, Olivia. â€Å"Inside A Sweatshop: An Eyewitness Account.† 24March 2000,3. Henderson, Hazel. â€Å"Interview With An Economist.† KnowledgeManagement Magazine. January 28, 2000. 25 March 2000. @www.kmmag.com. 4.â€Å"How Do You Survive On 31 Cents-an-Hour Wages?† National LaborCouncil. 24 March 20005. â€Å"Phillips-Van Heusen: An Industry ‘Leader’ Unveiled.† CleanClothes Campaign. 24 March 2000. 6. â€Å"USA: California Senate Passes Anti-Sweatshop Bill, AwaitsGovornor’s Signature† Corporate Watch September 9, 1999. March 24,2000. 7. â€Å"What is UNITE doing?.† U.N.I.T.E. 8 May, 2000.